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Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India because he brought modernity in ideas, architecture, reforms, public works etc.  Military Reforms : Shimla became the army headquarter and Meerut became artillery headquarter Dalhousie created a new, regiment called ‘Gurkha Regiment’ and also introduced the system of centralized control in newly acquired territories known as ‘Bon-Regulation system’.  Educational Reforms : Woods dispatch is considered as the Magna Carta of English education that helped in the development of female & male education. An engineering college was established at Roorkee and Anglo Vernacular Schools and Government colleges were also opened.  Social Reform : Widow Remarriage Act (1856) was passed during his work period. Infrastructural  Development : He introduced the railway network that facilitated trade, commerce and cultural experiences.  He also laid out first telegraph line and postal system on modern lines that increased commu...

The Indian independence movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent process of constant ideological evolution. Although the basic ideology of the movement was anti-colonial but it was also supported by a vision of independent, capitalist, economic development coupled with a secular democratic, republican and civil liberation political structure.  The term Indian independence movement encompasses a wide range of areas like political organizations, philosophies and movements which had the common aim to end the company rule, and then British imperial authority, in India. The independence movement saw various national and regional campaigns, agitations and efforts, some non-violent and other not so.  During the first quarter of the 19th century Raja Rammohan Roy introduced modern education into India. Swami Viveka Nanda was the Chief architect who profoundly projected the rich culture of India to the west at the end of 19th ce...

The non-violent movement for the independence of India appeared difficult to the youth. The youths separated from the moderates and tried to find out alternative ways for the Gandhian policies. In their attempt to find an alternative, they started using violent means and strength as a medium to end the British rule. Bhagat Singh was the main pillar of this policy.  Under Bhagat Singh's leadership in 1928 the freedom fighters established the Hindustan Socialist Republic Association (HSRA). Furthermore, revolutionary activities were also undertaken under Bhagat Singh's leadership. Among them Saunders murder and assembly bombing incidents were the main. The revolutionists led by Bhagat Singh were very radical. B hagat Singh in his trials made it clear that he w.-is not simply undertaking the bombing and other revolutionary activities but he wanted an end to the exploition both within the country and in the foreign to establish a universal social system. Bhagat Singh produced the e...

British control over India began purely out of economic considerations with political factor assuming primacy in the later stages. The English East India company assumed the Diwani rights over a large part of east India following their victory at Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764). The Company continued to rule for nearly a century followed by the direct British rule till 1947. In the meantime, they devised certain economic policies which had far reaching impact on all aspects of Indian society.  Till the 18th Century, India was not only ahead in the field of agriculture, but also had a prominent place in the world in the field of handicraft production.  Mid 18th Century onwards, the British destroyed handicraft industry and introduced new systems and tenures and policies of revenue administration.  The taxation policies of British were very regressive and exploitative. British had implemented new policies of revenue collection in the form of Permanent Settlement, Mahalwari ...

Firstly, the British introduced the modern concept of the rule of law. Their administration was to be carried out in obedience to laws, which clearly defined the rights, privilages, and obligations of the subjects. Several steps were taken by the British which had a positive impact on the positive efforts taken by the British may be identified as.  • They introduced modern and western system of education in India.  • They had first time introduced transport system such as the railway after introduction of railway system.  • The British took steps to unify India politically, administratively and economically, to full fill over interests but it benefited India as well later they introduced penal code like the criminal procedure code, civil procedure code and Indian penal code, etc. brought uniformity to the legal system of India but opportunity was given to Britisher and not the Indian.  • The historical researchers by the Europeans scholar were one of the factors behi...

Critiques say that supporting Khilafat movement by Gandhiji was a backward step the Khilafat Movement was started against the dismemberment of Turkey, dissolution of the institution of the Caliphate. Gandhiji supported the movement, which critics felt was a backward step. But he saw it an opportunity for launching a struggle against the British. However, the critics felt that religion was taken up as a theme which encouraged communal issues.  An analysis of Gandhiji's support shows that in freedom struggle support from all classes and sections of the country was of utmost importance. In Khilafat Movement issue, by supporting the Muslims, Gandhiji attracted a large class of the masses.  Again during the 1919-1922 period, there was a remarkable unity of Hindu-Muslim which was an indication of the success of Gandhiji's policy. By 1916, by the Lucknow Pact, Congress accepted the issue regarding the separate electorates for the Muslim. Gandhi did not have anything to do with this. ...

Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. (i) A.O. Hume was founded INC in 1885. He was a liberal British Civil Servant sympathetic to India’s freedom struggle and worked for Congress in India. He is known as ‘Father of Indian Ornithology’.  (ii) Annie Besant of Ireland, founded Home Rule League and the Theosophical society in India. She also edited ‘New India and Commonwealth’.  (iii)Sister Nivedita was Scots-Irish social worker, author and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. She had close associates with the Ramakrishna Mission during its inception. Her epitaph reads “Here reposes Sister Nivedita who gave her all to India”.  (iv)C.F. Andrews worked with Gandhi in South Africa and also in India. He was known as “Deenbandhu”, and he denounced Begari in Himachal. He organized relief operation for Orissa flood victims and earthquakes of Bihar.

Special Congress season at Calcutta accepted Policy of progressive, non-cooperation's because of the injustice of government. Though in non-cooperation movement congress hoped to paralyse the functioning of civil administration of the unjust foreign government by withdrawing all co-operation.  Tilak and Annie Besant played a mediator role to re unite moderates and extremists for non-cooperation movement also transform the nature of the struggle for Indian freedom. The terror of British administration disappeared. Congress slogans for swaraj shouted from house-tops people geared for all possible sacrifice for swaraj Bonafire of foreign goods became a common sites in cities. Government courts boycotted and Arbitration courts set up to settle disputes.  Therefore, "Non-cooperation Movement gave new direction and energy to the national Movement." During Non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji, the freedom struggle took a new track with the use of Satyagraha, truth and non-violen...

The circulation of newspapers during the early period of British rule in India never exceeded hundred or two hundred. There was hardly any danger of public opinion being subverted in India.  The regulations by the British Rule to curb the freedom of Press in India was considered as one of the major attacks on civil freedom. Regulation started with the censorship of Press Act of 1799, which implemented war time Press restrictions, including that of pre-censorship, followed by the Licensing. Regulations of 1823 made the starting of a press without license as a penal offence. The Licensing Act of 1857 removed the relaxations brought about by the Press Act of 1835.  During Lytton's period Vernacular Press Act was enacted, it had the following provisions:  (1) Any Indian publisher may be called upon by the district magistrate to enter into a bond undertaking that the published articles would not cause any disaffection to the government.  (2) The decision of the Magistrate...

Entire history of the freedom movement is replete with the saga of bravely, sacrifice and political powers of great women.  (i) Kalpana Datta was a part of a revolutionary brigade in Chittagong that led an armed struggle against British between 1930-34.  (ii) Sarojini Naidu was the first women President of the Indian National Congress in 1925 at Kanpur Session. She actively participated in Satyagraha Movement, Khilafat Movement, Rowlatt act etc. She is popularly known by the sobriquet as ‘The nightingale of India’.  (iii)Bina Das a member of Chatri Sangha in Kolkata, attempted to assassinate Stanley Jackson, Governor of Bengal, in 1932. She later joined Congress and became a member of West Bengal legislative assembly.  (iv) Madam Bhikaji Cama provided bases for India’s revolutionaries in Europe and USA. She organized free India Society and began the journal ‘Vande Mataram’ to spread her revolutionary thoughts.  Other important personages are : Kamla Nehru, Annie...

The tribals may be deliberated the natives of the land and with the their rights which were suppressed. It led to the outbreak of a services of tribal uprisings in the 19th century. The ethnic attempts were a basic feature of the tribal revolts. The rebels saw themselves not as a president class but as having a tribal class which was noticeable unless they co-operated with the British.  Revolts normally began at a point where the tribals felt so oppressed, that they had no other alternative than to fight. They were in the form of spontaneous attack on outside looting their property and expelling them from their villages. Often religious and charismatic leaders emerged at this stage and promised divine Interference end to their suffering at the hands of outsiders and asked their fellow tribals to rise and rebel against the foreign authority.  The warfare between the tribals rebels and the British armed forces was totally unequal. However the movement had definitely weaknesses. ...

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar laid the foundation of Dalit movement in India. He was committed to annihilation of caste. He argued that the caste system must vanish for the Dalits to attain a respectable position in the society. The contemporary Dalit movements focus on assertion of Dalit identity, it has been debated whether the strengthening or Dalit identity can lead towards the annihilation of caste. These movements are characterized by:  (i) Several leaders have electoral ambitions, thus they utilize these movements by strengthening the Dalit identity for vote bank politics, thus mobilizing Dalits for vote bank politics.  (ii) The Dalit movements are dominated by their middle class raising issues related to identity and reservations of government jobs and political positions. Thus, Dalit movements have material benefits as their primary aim.  (iii)There is widespread local level assertion against the practice of untouchability and discrimination. Their struggles have brought Dal...

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi were infallibly dedicated to the cause of Indian freedom. They were loved by the masses and feared by the Raj. But between themselves, these two icons of India’s freedom movement shared a rather frosty relationship and history is replete with instances of trenchant differences between them.  Although Subhash Chandra was a follower of Gandhi during the initial days, the later part of the 1930 witnessed a growing radicalization of his thoughts and Bose became increasingly frustrated with the lack of momentum in the independence movement. As Bose started to assert his bold stance in various party forums, it led to a polarization in the Congress party ranks.  Subhash Chandra Bose found himself frequently at loggerheads with Gandhi and their differences often came out in the public. All these bickering reached a climax when Subhash Chandra Bose became Congress President for a second term in 1939 defeating Gandhi-nominated candidate Pat...

The salient feature of the Government of India Act, 1909 were :  • The introduction of communal electorates is considered as the main feature of 1909 Act.  • Official majority was maintained in the central legislative council.  • The landlords, rural nobility, nominated members of the princely states consisted the electoral college.  • An Indian was to be included in the Viceroy's executive council.  • The system of election introduced was to be an indirect one.  • Two Indians were to be nominated by the Secretary of State for Indian affairs.  Through this Act, the British attempted to deepen the rift between the Hindus and Muslims to further weaken the strength of the Indian. This act created strong pillars of British rule in India. British Government had a lesson from the revolt. To established their rule in India permanently, British had find out new policies for this the Act of 1858 was introduced. This Act led further the communal politics and ult...

Many reasons may be identified for the partition of Bengal in 1905. According to the British Government, the Bengal province consisting of Bihar, Orissa, Assam was too big to be welt governed. So it was felt that Bengal has to be divided for administrative convenience.  The British government actually was interested to check nationalistic feelings of Indians, so they partitions Bengal. Bengal was the nerve centre of Indian nationalism due to the rising number of attacks on the Britishers by the revolutionary terrorists, and due to the fact that emerging military nationalism had obtained a strong following in Bengal.  So it was this consideration which made the British partition Bengal under two administrate units;  1.  On the basis of language thus reducing Bengalis to a minority in Bengal itself.  2. On the basis of religion as Hindus in West and Muslims in the East. It was this imperialistic consideration that led to the partition of Bengal-and not the concept...

Patharughat is a famous place in Indian history located in north east Asom is known for 140 unarmed peasants who fell to the bullets of British military police in 1894. It was J R Berington, officialiting commandment of the military police, who ordered the firing against hundreds at Patharughat in Darrang district on 28th January, 1894, when they protested against the British Government Policy of imposing exorbitant taxes.  The Patharughat massacre occurred long before the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the people of Pathrughat want the martyrs of January 28, 1894, killings to get national recognition in the annuls of India' struggle. This tragedy was one of greatest tragedy of India struggle history.

The Moderate leaders gave national movement its start and clearly stated the colonisation's aims and policies. Their economic and constitutional understanding remained the guiding principle of the national movement. However, their reach among people was always limited due to following reasons :- • The political jargons used by the moderates were alien to uneducated masses. There was also lack of political faith in the masses. Thus people largely remained aloof.  • It was gradually realised that the British didn’t concede to any of the major demands of the moderates.  • Indian Council Act 1892 was criticised. Moves such as further amplification of repressive laws under IPC and reduction in number of members in Calcutta Corporation didn’t go down well with progressive elements in INC.  • Political ideologies of the moderates were blamed to be inefficient. Methods followed by moderates were described as political mendicancy.  The result was emergence of a more militan...

The socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century may be regarded as Indian Renaissance.  The most striking feature of the Indian renaissance is its work towards the upliftment of women, criticism of caste systems and religious orthodoxy.  It did not preach Western values because on some counts both were contradictory.  Though the socio-religious reform movement borrowed many elements from the West, but they also challenged the western culture perpetuated by the colonial government.  Reform movements the like Brahma Samaj, Prarthana Samaj were forward looking in the sense that they tried to rid the Indian society from its superstitious beliefs. Whereas other like the Arya Samaj;  Theosophical Society were often regarded as revivalistic movement because they attempted to revive the age-old tradition of the Indian Society to counter the spread of Western Values, even though they were based on blind faith.  More Indian Renaisance mad conscious attempts ...

An important development in the second half of 18th century was the establishment of large scale machine based industries in India. It led to the emergence of two new classes industrialist and the modern worker class. The Indian capitalist class emerged in the latter half of the 19th century and developed its attitude towards the Indian National Congress which can be analysed in three phases.  The first phase, may be taken to be the period between 1855 and 1905.  During the period, of the Indian National Congress, the Industrialist class supported some of the demands of the Congress like.  • Stopping the drain of wealth from India to British.  • Use of indigenous capital instead of foreign capital etc. It is because of the co-operation of this class with the Congress that Swadeshi Movement, by and large became successful.  The second phase, starting from 1905, extended till late 1930s.  During this phase, the industrialist class, by and large, supported Gan...

The period from 1920 to 1947 has been described as the Gandhian Era in Indian politics. During this period, Gandhiji had the final say behalf of the Indian National Congress in negotiating with the British Government for constitutional reforms, and for chalking out a programme for the national movement. Mahatma Gandhi led the national freedom struggle against the British rule and it also gave space and voice to many other voices which further strengthened the movement.  Voices that strengthened and enriched nationalist movement are as follow:  Socialist Voice  • The emergence of socialism in Congress during 1920s and 1930s imparted a new orientation to anti-British struggle because the socialist vision of national movement was quite different from that of Gandhiji and other nationalists.  • Anti-British struggle got radicalism greatly because socialists wanted that the idea of non-violence should be followed by congress in a pragmatic manner for the mistakes of one o...