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Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru was the main pillar or National movement during liberal phase. His impact can be seen as the liberal attitude of national movement. He was instrumental to bring hack Tilak and many other revolutionary leaders into the Congress in 1916. Thus, it can be said that he worked as a bridge between liberals and revolutionaries. He gave Indian National Movement a new form and direction. He was an advocate, and statesman and fought many cases including 'Meerut Conspiracy Case' a controversial court case initiated in British India.  When the British Indian Government tried to press the Communist through Meerut Conspire Case, he along with Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhula Bhai Desai, MA Ansari and MC Chagla were in the Defense Council in favour of the convicts. Three British Communist Phillip Spratt, Ban Bradely and Lester Hutchinson were convicted in Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929).  It was the longest conspiracy trial. He was chosen a representative of liberals at the Indian ...

‘Jai Jawan jai Kisan’ was a slogan given by the Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965. It means – ‘hail the soldier and hail the farmer’. Soon after Shastri took over the Prime Ministership of India after Nehru’s death. India was attacked by Pakistan and at the same time India was facing the scarcity of food-grains.  Shastri gave the slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan to enthuse the soldiers to defend India and simultaneously cheering farmers to do the best to increase the production of foodgrains to reduce dependence on import. Also at that time US suspended all food aid to India due to Indo-Pak war, so the government was compelled to take measures like rationing, creation of state Food Trading Corporation but it did not serve the purpose completely. So in this background the Jai Jawan Jai Kisan slogan gave an impetus to both the army and the farmers to give the best of their potential.  In 1998, Atal Bihari Vajpayee added Jai Vigyan (Hail Science) to the slogan after t...

Subhash Chandra Bose was a prominent freedom fighter who has made an immense contribution to the freedom of our country. He participated in the Non-corporation Movement in 1920 and set an example for the youth of the country and inspired them in many ways. Subhash chandra Bose was a prominent freedom fighter. He participated in the noncooperation movement in 1920. He became the president of Haripura and Tripuri session of congress. He founded the Forward Block in January 1941. He made anti British propoganda from the Berlin radio station and raised free India units with the Indian prisoners of war in germany.  After Ras Bihari Boase resigned from the chairmanship of Indian Independence league subhash chandra Bose became the commander in chief of INA. Bose set up two INA Headquarters, in Rangoon and in Singapora Bose in a Broadcast on Azad Hind Radio had addressed Gandhi Ji as the “Father of the Nation”. The slogans of INA were “Jai Hind” and “Delhi Chalo.”

Maulana Azad pre-independence contribution: Maulana Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement during which he came into close contact with the Indian leader, Mahatma Gandhi, Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi’s ideas and worked in Noncooperation movement and in protests of Rowlatt Act.  At the age of 35 years, he became the youngest person to become the President of Indian National Congress. Azad became the most prominent Muslim opponent of the demand for a separate Muslim state of Pakistan and served in the interim national government.  In 1930, Maulana Azad was arrested for violation of the salt laws as a part of Gandhiji’s Salt Satyagraha. Maulana Azad’s post independence contribution  • Azad took up the responsibility of safety of Muslims in India after partition by organising refugee camps, supplies and security.  • As India’s first education Minister Azad masterminded the national programmes of school and colleges construction and spreading t...

Bhoodan was an attempt at land reform, it brought about institutional reform in agriculture like land redistribution, through a movement and not only through legislation. Vinobha Bhave a Gandhian constructive worker, organized Sorvodaya Samaj and popularized that it is far better for a hundred families in a village to cultivate their land collectively and to divide their income than to divide the land into hundred portions.  The objective of the Bhoodan movement was to persuade the wealthy landowners to voluntarily give a percentage of their land which could be later on redistributed among the landless farmers. But it was not effective because the poor farmers were given a small patch of land on which to settle, as well as grow some of their own food, so as to give them incentive to remain in village as captive labour pool for rich landowners.  Bhoodan led to fragmentation of land and according to Gandhian Principle, the key to the lasting solution of land problem lies in vill...

In 1909, the government introduced some constitutional reforms in Indian, to please the moderate leaders and strengthen their position in the congress. These reforms are named after Morley, the secretary of the state for India, who piloted the bill through the British Parliament. Though it was the first true attempt at introducing a representative and popular element, it was not free from flaws. The real aim of the reforms was to divide the nationalist ranks and to check the growth of unity among Indians.  The reforms introduced the system of separate electorate, under which all the muslims were gathered in separate constituencies from which only muslim candidates could be elected. It was claimed to have been done to protect the muslim minority. But in reality the reforms was an attempt to divide the Hindus and Muslims, to strengthen British supremacy in India by checking the growth of national unity in India.  However, it may be said that the reforms set the stage for the ado...

Critiques say that supporting Khilafat movement by Gandhiji was a backward step the Khilafat Movement was started against the dismemberment of Turkey, dissolution of the institution of the Caliphate. Gandhiji supported the movement, which critics felt was a backward step. But he saw it an opportunity for launching a struggle against the British. However, the critics felt that religion was taken up as a theme which encouraged communal issues.  An analysis of Gandhiji's support shows that in freedom struggle support from all classes and sections of the country was of utmost importance. In Khilafat Movement issue, by supporting the Muslims, Gandhiji attracted a large class of the masses.  Again during the 1919-1922 period, there was a remarkable unity of Hindu-Muslim which was an indication of the success of Gandhiji's policy. By 1916, by the Lucknow Pact, Congress accepted the issue regarding the separate electorates for the Muslim. Gandhi did not have anything to do with this. ...

In 1928, the Hartog Committee was set up to support ways of developing education and media in India, The committee found that an increase in number of schools and colleges had deteriorated the educational standard in India.  The committee was found that primary education was in a neglected condition, and hence it emphasized the primary education than higher education. It found that deterioration was also due to admitting undeserving students to high schools and intermediate stages.  Further the committee also brought to the notice of administration, the neglect of emphasis over vocational education. It thus recommended that average students ought to be encouraged to take up vocational courses. The hartog committee also brought to the notice that the priority of the University education has to be improved and, at the same time, it felt that admissions to the universities should be restricted.

Special Congress season at Calcutta accepted Policy of progressive, non-cooperation's because of the injustice of government. Though in non-cooperation movement congress hoped to paralyse the functioning of civil administration of the unjust foreign government by withdrawing all co-operation.  Tilak and Annie Besant played a mediator role to re unite moderates and extremists for non-cooperation movement also transform the nature of the struggle for Indian freedom. The terror of British administration disappeared. Congress slogans for swaraj shouted from house-tops people geared for all possible sacrifice for swaraj Bonafire of foreign goods became a common sites in cities. Government courts boycotted and Arbitration courts set up to settle disputes.  Therefore, "Non-cooperation Movement gave new direction and energy to the national Movement." During Non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji, the freedom struggle took a new track with the use of Satyagraha, truth and non-violen...

Mahatma Gandhi’s contribution to achievement of Indian Independence was invaluable. He made the freedom struggle a mass movement, encouraging participation of every section of society.  In Non-cooperation movement, women and youth participation was unprecedented. Peasants and workers also joined the movement after Mahatma Gandhi’s arrival on national scene. Earlier freedom movement was solely restricted to educated upper class.  He also introduced a new method of peaceful satyagraha, based on truth and nonviolence. Britishers had no idea how to deal with it. If they didn’t do anything, then masses were mobilized against them, and if they used force then also masses condemned them. Had he not been there, achievement of Independence would have been more violent.  He conditioned massed for non-violent struggle. For example, in non-cooperation movement this was used on a mass scale for the first time. After the incident of Chauri - Chaura, he realized that people were not pre...

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi were infallibly dedicated to the cause of Indian freedom. They were loved by the masses and feared by the Raj. But between themselves, these two icons of India’s freedom movement shared a rather frosty relationship and history is replete with instances of trenchant differences between them.  Although Subhash Chandra was a follower of Gandhi during the initial days, the later part of the 1930 witnessed a growing radicalization of his thoughts and Bose became increasingly frustrated with the lack of momentum in the independence movement. As Bose started to assert his bold stance in various party forums, it led to a polarization in the Congress party ranks.  Subhash Chandra Bose found himself frequently at loggerheads with Gandhi and their differences often came out in the public. All these bickering reached a climax when Subhash Chandra Bose became Congress President for a second term in 1939 defeating Gandhi-nominated candidate Pat...

M. K. Gandhi is known to be one of the few people who encouraged women’s active participation in the freedom struggle-marking him as a rare promoter of women’s liberation. Women’s entry into national politics through non-violent methods brought miraculous results. On the one hand, women became aware of their inner strength, and on the other, the process brought human and moral elements into politics.  Gandhi had tremendous faith in women’s inherent capacity for non-violence. And his experience of participation by women in politics from his days in South Africa till the end of his life bears testimony to the fact that they never failed his expectations. With Gandhi’s inspiration, they took the struggle right into their homes and raised it to a moral level.  Women organized public meetings, sold Khadi and prescribed literature, started picketing shops of liquor and foreign goods, prepared contraband salt, and came forward to face all sorts of atrocities, including inhuman treatm...

The salient feature of the Government of India Act, 1909 were :  • The introduction of communal electorates is considered as the main feature of 1909 Act.  • Official majority was maintained in the central legislative council.  • The landlords, rural nobility, nominated members of the princely states consisted the electoral college.  • An Indian was to be included in the Viceroy's executive council.  • The system of election introduced was to be an indirect one.  • Two Indians were to be nominated by the Secretary of State for Indian affairs.  Through this Act, the British attempted to deepen the rift between the Hindus and Muslims to further weaken the strength of the Indian. This act created strong pillars of British rule in India. British Government had a lesson from the revolt. To established their rule in India permanently, British had find out new policies for this the Act of 1858 was introduced. This Act led further the communal politics and ult...

Salient features of the Government of India Act, 1858: • India's rule came directly under British crown.  • The administration was to be run by the secretary of state and Governor General.  • The Board of directors and Board of controlled were abolished.  • The council of India was an advisory body, with the secretary of state as its chairman.  • The British gave up the policy of expansion and annexation of princely states.  These features suggest that the Act was passed mainly to consolidate the British control over India, and, thereby, tactfully suppress any upsurge, like the revolt of 1857 by the Indians. 

Whigs and Tories had joined hands to complete without delay the process of extendihg crown government over India. Lord Palmerston, the British Prime Ministdr, declared his Government's decision to assume directly the Government of lndia by the British Crown. John Stuart Mill prepared-a dignified and weighty petition which was presented by the Company against the Government decision to both the Houses of Parliament. But no petition could any longer stem the tide of mounting criticism against the Company's administration. Lord Stanley. President of the Board of Control introduced a bill for the 'Better Government' of lndia which became an Act of Parliament in August 1858.  The Government of lndia passed from the hands of the English East lndia Company to the crown. The armed forces of the company were transferred to the crown. The Board of control and court of Directors were abolished. Their place was taken by the Secretary of State of lndia and his lndia Council. They we...

Politically conscious Indians made efforts to bring to an'end the reactionary government of the East lndia Company. Raja Rammohan Roy went to Britain and represented India's case before the Parliamentary Select Committee. The Bombay Association and the Madras Native Association sent petitions on similar lines. But there was strong opposition to it from leaders of different parties, ministers, president of the Board of Control and Company's Directors. They favoured the renewal of the Charter.  By the Act of 1853, separation of the executive and the legislative functions was carried a step further by the provision of additional members of council for the purpose of legislation. The Law Member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor General. The consent of the Governor General was made necessary for all legislative proposals. In this framework the central,legislature was completed. Central Legislative Council was to consist of one representative each fr...

Enquiries into the Company's affairs were ordered before another renewal of the Charter due in 1813. In 1808, the House of Commons appointed a Committee of investigations. Its report on judicial and police arrangements was submitted in 1812. The government decided to allow British subjects access to lndia with their ships.  The Home Government had specifically directed the Government of lndia not to follow the policy of conquests. But aggressive policies in lndia resulted in acquisition of territory. Lord Wellesley and Marquis of Hastings followed an imperialistic policy. The Company's power had spread to the whole of lndia except Punjab, Nepal and Sind. Company requested for financial help from the Parliament due to overspending in wars and setback in trade. There was also a lot of agitation against continuance of commercial monopoly by the East lndia Company. Independent merchants demanded ending of the same. They wanted a share in the trade with India.  The teachings of Ada...

The Charter was to be renewed in 1793. Henry Dundas, President of the Board of Control, was in favor of renewing the Charter and allowing the Company to retain its political privileges and responsibilities. Cornwallis also supported this stand. The Charter of the Company was renewed for 20 years and it was declared that it would be allowed to continue with the possession of all territories for the next 20 years.  The Governor General's and Governors' powers to overrule their council were emphasized and explained. This power had been given specially to Cornwallis in 1786. Governor General's control over the Presidencies was strengthened. He was allowed /to issue orders and directions to any Government and Presidency of lndia during his absence from Bengal without previous consultation with his council. He could exercise all executive power vested in the Central Government.  A regular code of all regulations that could be enacted for the internal Government of the British ter...

Pitt's India Act was passed in August, 1784. The purpose was to remove defects in the Regulating Act. Its essential plan was the same. Company's public affairs and its administration in lndia were to come directly under supreme control of the British Government. The right of the Company to territorial possessions was however not touched, so it essentially meant a compromise.  The Act established a Board of Control consisting of six~commissioners, including, two Cabinet ministers. The Board of Control was to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors and the Government of India. They were to control all matters of civil and military Government of the British territories in India. A secret committee consisting of three Directors was appointed to take the place of the Court ' of Directors in political and military matters.  The Constitution of the Company's government in lndia was revised. The Act established the principle that the government of lndia be placed u...

The Parliament passed its first important Act in 1773. called the Regulating Act to control the Company's Administration. The Act made changes in the constitution of the Company at home; the whole of the territories in India were subjected to some degree of control.  The provision was made in a very efficient manner for the government to keep supervision over the Company. Changes were made in the Constitution of the Court of Directors of the Company. It was required that it should submit to the Government all communications about civil and military affairs received from Bengal and revenues of India.  In the field of executive government. the status of Governor of Bengal was raised to Governor General. His Council would consist of four members. The Governor General in Council was given the power to superintend and control the presidencies of Madras and Bombay in matters of war and peace. In this body was vested the civil and military administration of the presidency, and govern...