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Fold mountains are formed from sedimentary rocks that accumulate along the margins of continents, when two tectonic plates move together. When the plates and the continents riding on them collide, the accumulation layers of rock may crumple and fold, particularly if there is a mechanically weak layer such as salt. These accumulated layer or sediments are then pushed together by volcanic islands to form folds, which eventually form fold mountains.  Mostly, in the interaction between oceanic plate and continental plate, oceanic plate gets subducted beneath the margins of continental plates, giving rise to mighty mountains. This activity can occur only on the margins of continents, as a result of which fold mountains are observed along the margins of continents.  Fold mountains are distributed throughout the world in the eastern margins of Mediterranean to Western Pacific, West Coast of South America and Appalachians Mountains of North America. The earth quakes in these regions o...

The theory of continental drift was propounded by Wagner according to which all he continents formed a single continental mass called PANGEA and mega ocean PANTHALASSA surrounded it. He argued that, around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent, Pangea, began to split in two different directions.  Pangea first broke into two large continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming Northern and Southern components respectively. Evidences in support of the continental drift are —  1. Matching of continents (Jig-saw-fit)— the shorelines of Africa and South America facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable match.  2. Rocks of same age across the oceans — The belt of ancient rocks of 2000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those from Western Africa.  3. Evidence left by past glacial flows.  4. Fossils Deposits — Observation that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass ‘Lemuria’ linking three...

An archipelago (sometimes known as a island group or a island chain) is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. Archipelago may be found isolated in bodies of water or neighbouring a large landmass. Many of them are located in the western Pacific Ocean. Islands in the Indonesian and Philippines Archipelago have been formed due to interactions among Pacific plate, IndoAustralian plate and Philippines plate, converging with each other.  When the oceanic front of these plates interact with each other, the older and denser plate subducts into a trench, resulting in earthquakes. Sediments of ocean floor and melting of mantle material creates volcanoes at the subduction zone. These volcanoes produce ‘Island arcs’ or group of islands or Archipelago.  It is the oceanic basaltic floor which, after being metamorphosed, forms the huge series of volcanic arcs (island arcs). In addition of this, tectonic uplifts have also created these islands and mountains on these islands. The overlap...

El-Nino (Means Christ Child) effect refers to the warming of the surface water of East Pacific Ocean and relative cooling of Indian Ocean, thereby causing low pressure and high pressure respectively in those regions.  Typically, this anomaly happens at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts nine months to two years. Its immediate effects are felt as unusual heavy downpour along the Chile and Peru coast and also in the desert of Atacama resulting into flood, whereas, it results into weakening of Monsoon in Indian Ocean region due to ENSO (El-Nino Southern Oscillation). Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience much fewer tropical cyclones impact during El Nino and neutral years. The tropical Atlantic Ocean experiences depressed activity due to increased vertical wind shear across the region during El Nino years.  Most of the recorded East Pacific category 5 hurricanes occur during El Nino years in clusters. Winters, during the El Nino effect, are warmer and...

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure centre, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain. Depending on its location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by names such as typhoon (South China Sea), cyclone (Bay of Bengal), and hurricane (Gulf of Mexico).  The tropical cyclones originate in the tropical region in both hemispheres. Formation of tropical cyclone needs warm water bodies where temperature should be more than 25°C. Continuous supply of warm moisture is needed for condensation in upper atmosphere which releases more latent heat of condensation.  This process will result into vertical column of low pressure. For the formation of this vertical column, calm wind condition is needed. These requisite conditions are present in South China Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Mexico and other tropical oceanic regions.

Salinity is defined as the amount of salt dissolved in 1000 gms of sea water. it is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt. The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33o/oo and 37o/oo. Oceanic salinity varies significantly due to the free movement of ocean water and its distribution has two aspects:  • Horizontal: The areas of highest salinity (about 37o/oo, in Atlantic Ocean) are found near the Tropics due to active evaporation owing to clear skies, high temperature and steady Trade winds. From the tropical areas, salinity decreases both towards the equator and towards the poles. Salinity is relatively low near the equator (about 35o/oo, in Atlantic Ocean) due to high rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums. In polar seas, salinity decreases (20-32o/oo) due to very little evaporation and due to melting ice yielding fresh water.  • Vertical: Generally salinity decreases with increasing depth. Surface water is more saline due t...

The causes and factors affecting the ocean currents may be divided into two classes : Primary causes, and, Secondary causes. Primary factors are responsible for the origin whereas the secondary factors determine the direction of flow of ocean currents.  1. Primary causes :  (i) Planetary winds: Planetary winds are the principal cause of the origin of ocean currents. Such winds drive surface water along with them.  (ii) Difference of density and salinity: Difference of density and salinity in ocean water motivates denser waters to sink and move as undercurrents; whereas lighter waters move towards the denser water as surface currents. Such density differences are mainly the result of differences in temperature and salinity of ocean waters.  2. Secondary causes:  (i) The rotation of the Earth: The rotation of the Earth, which affects the direction of movement, deflects poleward current eastwards, equator wards currents westwards. It may be pointed out here that th...

Mantle plume is an up-welling of abnormally hot rock within the earth’s mantle which carries heat upward in narrow, rising columns, driven by heat exchange across the core-mantle boundary. Eventually, the rising column of hot rock reaches the base of the lithosphere, where it spreads out, forming a mushroom-shaped cap to the plume.  Geophysicist, W. Jason Morgan, developed the hypothesis of mantle plumes in 1971. The largest (and most persistent) mantle plumes are presumed to form where a large volume of mantle rock is heated at the core-mantle boundary, about 1800 miles below the surface, although smaller plumes may originate elsewhere within the mantle. Heat transferred from the plume raises the temperature in the lower lithosphere to above melting point, and forms magma chambers that feed volcanoes at the surface.  Role of Mantle Plume in Plate Tectonics :  •Mantle plumes transport primordial mantle material from below the zone of active convection; produce time-p...

I. History and Culture of India, with special reference to Modern Period (1757 to 1947 A.D.)   1. Early Indian Civilizations-Indus and Vedic; Emergence of Religious Movements in the sixth century BC - Jainism and Buddhism; Indo- Greek Art and Architecture – Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravathi Schools; Social and Cultural condition under the Mauryan, Satavahanas and Guptas .  2. Advent of Islam and its impact on Indian Society – Nature and significance of Bhakti and Sufi Movements; Contribution of Kakatiya, and Vijayanagara rulers to Language, Literature, Art and Architecture: the contribution of Delhi Sultans and Mughals to Language, Literature, Art, Architecture and Fine Arts, Monuments; Emergence of Composite Culture in the Deccan and India.  3. The Establishment of British Colonial Rule in India: Carnatic Wars , Battle of Plassey, AngloMysore, Anglo-Maratha and Anglo-Sikh Wars; Economic Impact of British Colonial Rule: Land Revenue Settlements in British India; -Commercia...